Sutra ()[Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for sutra, page 1241] in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text. Sutras are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.[
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In Hinduism, sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements.[Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 54–55] Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.
In Buddhism, sutras, also known as suttas, are Buddhist texts, many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha. They are not aphoristic, but are quite detailed, sometimes with repetition. This may reflect a derivation from Vedic or Sanskrit sūkta (well spoken), rather than from sūtra (thread).[
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In Jainism, sutras, also known as suyas, are canonical sermons of Mahavira contained in the Jain Agamas as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.
Etymology
The Sanskrit word Sūtra (Sanskrit: सूत्र, Pali: sutta, Ardha Magadhi: sūya) means "string, thread".[M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 249] The root of the word is siv, "that which sews and holds things together".[ suci Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany] and sūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".[
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In the context of literature, sūtra means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.[
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A sūtra is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".[ A collection of sūtras becomes a text, and this is also called sūtra (often capitalized in Western literature).][
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A sūtra is different from other components such as , Anuvyakhayas and Vyakhyas found in ancient Indian literature.[ A sūtra is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,][Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, page 110–111][ व्याख्या , Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany]
History
>+ Sutra known from Vedic era[Max Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/198/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, page 199]
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| Veda | Sutras
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| [[Rigveda]] | Asvalayana Sutra (§), Sankhayana Sutra (§), Saunaka Sutra (¶)
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| [[Samaveda]] | Latyayana Sutra (§), Drahyayana Sutra (§), Nidana Sutra (§), Pushpa Sutra (§), Anustotra Sutra (§)[Max Müller (1859), [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/210/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], London: Williams and Norgate, page 210]
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| [[Yajurveda]] | Manava-sutra (§), Bharadvaja-sutra (¶), Vadhuna-sutra (¶), Vaikhanasa-sutra (¶), Laugakshi-sutra (¶), Maitra-sutra (¶), Katha-sutra (¶), Varaha-sutra (¶) , Apastamba-sutra (§), Baudhayana-sutra (§)
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| [[Atharvaveda]] | Kusika Sutra (§)
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| ¶: only quotes survive; §: text survives
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Sutras first appear in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layer of Vedic literature.[M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 251–253] They grow in number in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras.[ These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.][
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A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand without associated scholarly Bhasya or deciphering commentary that fills in the "weft".[Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, , page 26]
The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era that contain extensive sutras are part of the Vedas, dated from the late 2nd millennium BCE through to the mid 1st millennium BCE.[Max Müller (1859), History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, London: Williams and Norgate, pages 314–319] The Aitareya Aranyaka, for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of sutras.[ Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called Gatha, Narashansi, Itihasa, and Akhyana (songs, legends, epics, and stories).][Max Müller (1859), History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, London: Williams and Norgate, pages 40–45, 71–77]
In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".[Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, , page 206] This period followed the more ancient Chhandas period, Mantra period and Brahmana period.[Max Müller (1859), History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, London: Williams and Norgate, page 70]
Hinduism
Some of the earliest surviving specimens of sutras of Hinduism are found in the Anupada Sutras and Nidana Sutras.[Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, page 108] The former distills the epistemology debate whether Sruti or Smriti or neither must be considered the more reliable source of knowledge,[Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 101–108] while the latter distills the rules of musical meters for Samaveda chants and songs.[Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 147]
A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the Vedas.[ These are six subjects that said in the Vedas to be necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own sutras were "pronunciation (Siksha), meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyakarana), explanation of words (Nirukta), time keeping through astronomy (Jyotisha), and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa).][ The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at (fire rituals).][Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 108–113] The sutras corresponding to these are embedded inside the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery", and "On Euphonic Laws".[Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 113–115]
The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the Taittiriya Upanishad.[
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The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the Kalpa Sutras, Shulba Sutras, Srauta Sutras, Dharma Sutras, Grhya Sutras, and Smarta traditions .[Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 108–145] Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar.
Post-vedic sutras
Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of Hindu philosophy include
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Brahma Sutras (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.
[NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, , page 35 with footnote 30] The text contains 555 sutras in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the Upanishads.[James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, , page 124] It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.[
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Yoga Sutras – contains 196 sutras on Yoga including the eight limbs and meditation. The Yoga Sutras were compiled around 400 CE by Patanjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.
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Samkhya Sutra – is a collection of major Sanskrit texts of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on dualism of Kapila.
[ Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i] It consists of six books with 526 sutras.
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Vaisheshika Sutra – the foundational text of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to between the 4th century BCE and 1st century BCE, authored by Kanada.
[ With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic naturalism, epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of Dharma; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."][Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pages 334–335][Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 98–107]
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Nyaya Sutras – an ancient text of Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between the 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE.
[Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 129][B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.] It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.[ The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.][Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, ][SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, ] These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.[ The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.][ Book two is about pramana (epistemology), book three is about prameya or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.][
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Mimamsa Sutras – the foundational text of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini. It emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, i.e., rituals and religious works, as means to salvation.
[Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 67–86] The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the Nyaya school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.[ An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 sutras.][
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Dharma-sutras – of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha
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Artha-sutras – the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
[SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 586–587] The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the Arthashastra is itself composed in many parts, in sutra style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of Artha-knowledge from previous scholars.[Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, , pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75]
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Kama Sutra – an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexual and emotional fulfillment in life
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Moksha-sutras
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Shiva Sutras – fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of Sanskrit
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Narada Bhakti Sutra – a venerated Hindu sutra, reportedly spoken by the famous sage Narada
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Shandilya Bhakti Sutra – collection of one hundred bhakti sutras spoken by the Vedic sage Brahmarshi Shandilya. These sutras are also called as Shandilya Sutras.
Buddhism
In Buddhism, a sutta or sutra constitutes a segment of the canonical literature. These early Buddhist sutras, unlike Hindu texts, are not aphoristic; rather, they tend to be quite lengthy. The Buddhist term sutta or sutra likely derives from Sanskrit sūkta ( su + ukta), meaning "well spoken," reflecting the belief that "all that was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well-spoken".[K. R. Norman (1997), A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.)London: School of Oriental and African Studies,p. 104] They embody the essence of sermons conveying "well-spoken" wisdom, akin to the Jain sutras.
In Chinese, these are known as 經 (pinyin: jīng). These teachings are organized as part of the Tripiṭaka, specifically referred to as the Sutta Pitaka. Numerous significant or influential Mahayana texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, are termed sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.
In Theravada Buddhism, suttas constitute the second "basket" (pitaka) of the Pāli Canon. Rewata Dhamma and Bhikkhu Bodhi describe the Sutta Pitaka as:
Jainism
In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized.
The Kalpa Sūtra is, for example, a Jain text that includes monastic rules,
The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the Acaranga Sutra (Agamas), exist in sutra format,
See also
Notes and references
Further reading
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Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1241
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External links
